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"Machu Picchu" is a 15th-century Inca citadel located in the Eastern Cordillera of southern Peru on a mountain ridge at 2,430 meters (7,970 ft). Often referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas", it is the most familiar icon of the Inca Empire. It is located in the Machupicchu District within Urubamba Provinceabove the Sacred Valley, which is 80 kilometers (50 mi) northwest of Cusco. The Urubamba River flows past it, cutting through the Cordillera and creating a canyon with a subtropical mountain climate.
Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historic Sanctuary in 1982 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. In 2007, Machu Picchu was voted one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in a worldwide internet poll.
The site is on a narrow saddle between two mountain peaks, Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu. In the Quechua language, machu means "old" or "old person" and wayna means "young", while pikchu refers to a "summit," "peak," or "pyramid." Thus, the name of the site is often translated as "old mountain" or "old peak". Although the original name given to the settlement by its builders is not definitively known, a 2021 study in Ñawpa Pacha: Journal of the Institute of Andean Studies suggests that the site was likely called "Huayna Picchu," after the smaller peak nearby, or simply "Picchu." According to the research, the association of the name Machu Picchu with the ruins likely began with American explorer Hiram Bingham's 1911 publications, a conclusion supported by Bingham’s field notes, early maps, and historical documents.
Photo by Hiram Bingham III in 1912 after major clearing and before reconstruction work began Machu Picchu was previously believed (by Richard L. Burger, professor of anthropology at Yale University) to have been built in the 1450s.However, a 2021 study led by Burger used radiocarbon dating (specifically, AMS) to reveal that Machu Picchu may have been occupied from around 1420 to 1530 AD.[21][22] Construction appears to date from two great Inca rulers, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui (1438–1471) and Túpac Inca Yupanqui (1472–1493).: xxxvi A consensus among archaeologists is that Pachacutec ordered the construction of the royal estate for his use as a retreat, most likely after a successful military campaign. Although Machu Picchu is considered to be a "royal" estate, it would not have been passed down in the line of succession. Rather it was used for 80 years before being abandoned, seemingly because of the Spanish conquests in other parts of the Inca Empire.[1] It is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travelers before the Spanish conquistadors even arrived in the area.
View of the ancient houses During its use as an estate, it is estimated that about 750 people lived there, with most serving as support staff (yanaconas, yana)who lived there permanently. Though the estate belonged to Pachacutec, religious specialists and temporary specialized workers (mayocs) lived there as well, most likely for the ruler's well-being and enjoyment. During the harsher season[when?], staffing was reduced to a few hundred servants and a few religious specialists focused on maintenance alone. Studies show that, according to their skeletal remains, most people who lived there were immigrants from diverse backgrounds. They lacked the chemical markers and osteological markers they would have if they had been living there their entire lives. Instead, research into skeletal remains has found bone damage from various species of water parasites indigenous to different areas of Peru. There were also varying osteological stressors and varying chemical densities suggesting varying long-term diets characteristic of specific regions that were spaced apart. These diets are composed of varying levels of maize, potatoes, grains, legumes, and fish, but the last-known short-term diet for these people was overall composed of less fish and more corn. This suggests that several of the immigrants were from more coastal areas and moved to Machu Picchu where corn was a larger portion of food intake. Most skeletal remains found at the site had lower levels of arthritis and bone fractures than those found in most sites of the Inca Empire. Incan individuals who had arthritis and bone fractures were typically those who performed heavy physical labor (such as the Mit'a) or served in the Inca military.
Andenes (terraces) used for farming at Machu Picchu Much of the farming done at Machu Picchu was done on its hundreds of andenes (man-made terraces). These terraces were a work of considerable engineering, built to ensure good drainage and soil fertility while also protecting the mountain itself from erosion and landslides. However, the terraces were not perfect, as studies of the land show that there were landslides that happened during the construction of Machu Picchu. Still visible are places where the terraces were shifted by landslides and then stabilized by the Inca as they continued to build around the area.The terraces also enabled irrigation, increasing crop yields, with maize likely being the main crop due to its ceremonial importance, alongside possible cultivation of potatoes. However, terrace farming area makes up only about 4.9 ha (12 acres) of land, and a study of the soil around the terraces showed that what was grown there was mostly corn and potatoes, which was not enough to support the 750+ people living at Machu Picchu. This explains why studies done on the food that the Inca ate at Machu Picchu suggest it was imported from the surrounding valleys and farther afield.
In the late 16th century, Spaniards who had recently gained control of the area documented that indigenous individuals mentioned returning to "Huayna Picchu", the name that is believed to be originally given to the site by locals. The Spanish conquistador Baltasar de Ocampo had notes of a visit during the end of the 16th century to a mountain fortress called Pitcos with sumptuous and majestic buildings, erected with great skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, as well the principal as the ordinary ones, being of marble and elaborately carved. Over the centuries, the surrounding jungle overgrew the site, and few outside the immediate area knew of its existence. The site may have been re-discovered and plundered in 1867 by a German businessman, Augusto Berns.Some evidence indicates that the German engineer J. M. von Hassel arrived earlier. Maps show references to Machu Picchu as early as 1874. A 1904 atlas designated the site as Huayna Picchu.
Inscription "A. Lizárraga 1902" by Lizárraga on the central window of the Temple of the Three Windows In 1911 American historian and explorer Hiram Bingham traveled the region looking for the lost capital of the Neo-Inca state (later established to be Vilcabamba), established by Manco Inca after the Spanish conquest, and was led to Machu Picchu by a villager, Melchor Arteaga. Bingham found the name Agustín Lizárraga and the date 1902 written in charcoal on one of the walls of the Temple of the Three Windows. Initially disappointed, he documented in his pocket field journal: "Agustín Lizárraga is discoverer of Machu Picchu and lives at San Miguel Bridge just before passing." However, while Bingham initially acknowledged Lizárraga as the discoverer in his early writings and speeches, including Inca Land (1922), he gradually downplayed Lizárraga's role until, in his final version of the story, Lost City of the Incas (1952), Bingham claimed to have found the site himself. Though Bingham was not the first to visit the ruins, he was considered the scientific discoverer who brought Machu Picchu to international attention. Bingham organized another expedition in 1912 to undertake major clearing and excavation.
Melchor Arteaga crossing the Urubamba River on 24 July 1911
Bingham was a lecturer at Yale University, although not a trained archaeologist. In 1909, returning from the Pan-American Scientific Congress in Santiago, he travelled through Peru and was invited to explore the Inca ruins at Choqquequirau in the Apurímac Valley. He organized the 1911 Yale Peruvian Expedition in part to search for the Inca capital, which was thought to be the city of Vitcos. He consulted Carlos Romero, one of the chief historians in Lima who showed him helpful references and Father Antonio de la Calancha's Chronicle of the Augustinians. In particular, Ramos thought Vitcos was "near a great white rock over a spring of fresh water." Back in Cusco again, Bingham asked planters about the places mentioned by Calancha, particularly along the Urubamba River. According to Bingham, "one old prospector said there were interesting ruins at Machu Picchu," though his statements "were given no importance by the leading citizens." Only later did Bingham learn that Charles Wiener had also heard of the ruins at Huayna Picchu and Machu Picchu, but was unable to reach them.[24][47]
Hiram Bingham III at his tent door near Machu Picchu in 1912
Armed with this information, Bingham's expedition went down the Urubamba River. En route, Bingham asked local people to show them Inca ruins, especially any place described as having a white rock over a spring.
At Mandor Pampa, Bingham asked farmer and innkeeper Melchor Arteaga if he knew of any nearby ruins. Arteaga said he knew of excellent ruins on the top of Huayna Picchu.[49] The next day, 24 July, Arteaga led Bingham and Sergeant Carrasco across the river on a log bridge and up the Machu Picchu site. At the top of the mountain, they came across a small hut occupied by a couple of Quechua people, Richard and Alvarez, who were farming some of the original Machu Picchu agricultural terraces that they had cleared four years earlier. Alvarez's 11-year-old son, Pablito, led Bingham along the ridge to the main ruins.
The ruins were mostly covered with vegetation except for the cleared agricultural terraces and clearings used by the farmers as vegetable gardens. Because of the vegetation, Bingham was not able to observe the full extent of the site. He took preliminary notes, measurements, and photographs, noting the fine quality of Inca stonework of several principal buildings. Bingham was unsure about the original purpose of the ruins, but concluded there was no indication that it matched the description of Vitcos.
The expedition continued down the Urubamba and up the Vilcabamba Rivers examining all the ruins they could find. Guided by locals, Bingham rediscovered and correctly identified the site of the old Inca capital, Vitcos (then called Rosaspata), and the nearby temple of Chuquipalta. He then crossed a pass and into the Pampaconas Valley where he found more ruins heavily buried in the jungle undergrowth at Espíritu Pampa, which he named "Trombone Pampa".As was the case with Machu Picchu, the site was so heavily overgrown that Bingham could only note a few of the buildings. In 1964, Gene Savoy further explored the ruins at Espiritu Pampa and revealed the full extent of the site, identifying it as Vilcabamba Viejo, where the Incas fled after the Spanish drove them from Vitcos.
Bingham returned to Machu Picchu in 1912 under the sponsorship of Yale University and National Geographic and with the full support of Peruvian President Augusto Leguia. The expedition undertook a four-month clearing of the site with local labor, which was expedited with the support of the Prefect of Cusco. Excavation started in 1912 with further excavation undertaken in 1914 and 1915. Bingham focused on Machu Picchu because of its fine Inca stonework and well-preserved nature, which had lain undisturbed since the site was abandoned. None of Bingham's several hypotheses explaining the site have since held up. During his studies, he carried various artifacts back to Yale. One prominent artifact was a set of 15th-century, ceremonial Incan knives made from bismuth bronze; they are the earliest known artifact containing this alloy. Although local institutions initially welcomed the exploration, they soon accused Bingham of legal and cultural malpractice.Rumors arose that the team was stealing artifacts and smuggling them out of Peru through Bolivia. In fact, Bingham removed many artifacts, but openly and legally; they were deposited in the Yale University Museum. Bingham was abiding by the 1852 Civil Code of Peru; the code stated that "archaeological finds generally belonged to the discoverer, except when they had been discovered on private land" (Batievsky 100). Local press perpetuated the accusations, claiming that the excavation harmed the site and deprived local archaeologists of knowledge about their own history. Landowners began to demand rent from the excavators.[56] By the time Bingham and his team left Machu Picchu, locals had formed coalitions to defend their ownership of Machu Picchu and its cultural remains, while Bingham claimed the artifacts ought to be studied by experts in American institutions.
Further information: Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu In 1981, Peru declared an area of 325.92 square kilometers (125.84 sq mi) surrounding Machu Picchu a "historic sanctuary".In addition to the ruins, the sanctuary includes a large portion of the adjoining region, rich with the flora and fauna of the Peruvian Yungas and Central Andean wet puna ecoregions. Beyond its historical significance, Machu Picchu houses a diverse range of species. Among them are the Andean fox, puma, vizcacha, spectacled bear, and white-tailed deer. The sanctuary is also habitat for more than 420 bird species, notably the cock-of-the-rock and the Andean condor. The surrounding environment features a variety of tree species such as alder, white cedar, husk, and laurel. In 1983, UNESCO designated Machu Picchu a World Heritage Site, describing it as "a masterpiece of art, urbanism, architecture and engineering" and "a unique testimony" of the Inca Civilization.
Machu Picchu is both a cultural and natural UNESCO World Heritage Site. Since Hiram Bingham's expedition, growing numbers of tourists have visited the site each year, with numbers exceeding 1.5 million in 2019. As Peru's most visited tourist attraction, and a major revenue generator, it is continually exposed to economic and commercial forces. In the late 1990s, the Peruvian government granted concessions to allow the construction of a cable car and a luxury hotel, including a tourist complex with boutiques and restaurants and a bridge to the site.[69] These plans faced widespread protests, with critics arguing that the government had failed to conduct a proper environmental impact survey, as requested by the National Institute of Natural Resources, which warned of potential harm to the ecosystem. In 2018, plans were restarted to again construct a cable car to encourage Peruvians to visit Machu Picchu and boost domestic tourism. A no-fly zone exists above the area. UNESCO considered including Machu Picchu on its List of World Heritage in Danger in 2017, but ultimately decided against it.
Tourists at the main entrance to the Machu Picchu citadel
Efforts to manage the impact of tourism have included various measures over the years. In the 1980s, a rock from Machu Picchu's central plaza was moved to create a helicopter landing zone, a practice which was later stopped. In 2006, the company Helicusco sought approval for tourist flights over the site, but the license was soon rescinded. In January 2010, severe flooding caused by El Niño trapped over 4,000 people and disrupted access to Machu Picchu, leading to its temporary closure. The site reopened on April 1, 2010. To further address tourism's impact, stricter entrance regulations were introduced in July 2011, limiting the number of daily visitors to 2,500 per day to the citadel and 400 to Huayna Picchu. In 2018, a third entrance phase was added to better manage tourism and reduce site degradation.
The song "Kilimanjaro", from the Indian Tamil-language film Enthiran (2010), was filmed in Machu Picchu with some 100 Brazilian extras. The shoot was choreographed by Raju Sundaram and supervised by Fernando Astete, chief of the National Archaeological Park of Machu Picchu